Mount Rushmore National Memorial

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Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore near Keystone, South Dakota, in the United States. Sculpted by Gutzon Borglum and later by his son Lincoln Borglum, Mount Rushmore features 60-foot (18 m) sculptures of the heads of former United States presidents (in order from left to right) George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt and Abraham Lincoln.[1] The entire memorial covers 1,278.45 acres (5.17 km2)[2] and is 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level.[3]

South Dakota historian Doane Robinson is credited with conceiving the idea of carving the likenesses of famous people into the Black Hills region of South Dakota in order to promote tourism in the region. Robinson's initial idea was to sculpt the Needles; however, Gutzon Borglum rejected the Needles site and chose the larger Mount Rushmore. Borglum also decided the sculpture should have a more national focus, and chose the four presidents whose likenesses would be carved into the mountain. After securing federal funding, construction on the memorial began in 1927, and the presidents' faces were completed between 1934 and 1939. Upon Gutzon Borglum's death in March 1941, his son Lincoln Borglum took over construction. Though the initial concept called for each president to be depicted from head to waist, lack of funding forced construction to end in October 1941.

The U.S. National Park Service took control of the memorial in 1933, while it was still under construction, and manages the memorial to the present day. It attracts approximately two million people annually.[4]

History
See also: Construction of Mount Rushmore
Mount Rushmore prior to construction, photographed around 1905.
The carving of Mount Rushmore involved the use of dynamite, followed by the process of "honeycombing".[5] About 450,000 tons of rock were blasted off the mountainside.[6]

Originally known to the Lakota Sioux as Six Grandfathers, the mountain was renamed after Charles E. Rushmore, a prominent New York lawyer, during an expedition in 1885.[7] At first, the project of carving Rushmore was undertaken to increase tourism in the Black Hills region of South Dakota. After long negotiations involving a Congressional delegation and President Calvin Coolidge, the project received Congressional approval. The carving started in 1927, and ended in 1941 with some injuries and no fatalities.[4]

As Six Grandfathers, the mountain was part of the route that Lakota leader Black Elk took in a spiritual journey that culminated at Harney Peak. Following a series of military campaigns from 1876 to 1877, the United States asserted control over the area, a claim that is still disputed on the basis of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie (see section "Controversy" below). Among white American settlers, the peak was known variously as Cougar Mountain, Sugarloaf Mountain, Slaughterhouse Mountain, and Keystone Cliffs. It was named Mount Rushmore during a prospecting expedition by Rushmore, David Swanzey (husband of Carrie Ingalls), and Bill Challis.[8]

Historian Doane Robinson conceived the idea for Mount Rushmore in 1923 to promote tourism in South Dakota. In 1924, Robinson persuaded sculptor Gutzon Borglum to travel to the Black Hills region to ensure that the carving could be accomplished. Borglum had been involved in sculpting the Confederate Memorial Carving, a massive bas-relief memorial to Confederate leaders on Stone Mountain in Georgia, but was in disagreement with the officials there.[9] The original plan was to perform the carvings in granite pillars known as the Needles. However, Borglum realized that the eroded Needles were too thin to support sculpting. He chose Mount Rushmore, a grander location, partly because it faced southeast and enjoyed maximum exposure to the sun. Borglum said upon seeing Mount Rushmore, "America will march along that skyline."[10] Congress authorized the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Commission on March 3, 1925.[10] President Coolidge insisted that along with Washington, two Republicans and one Democrat be portrayed.[11]
Construction of Mount Rushmore.

Between October 4, 1927, and October 31, 1941, Gutzon Borglum and 400 workers sculpted the colossal 60-foot (18 m) carvings of U.S. presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln to represent the first 150 years of American history. These presidents were selected by Borglum because of their role in preserving the Republic and expanding its territory.[10][12] The image of Thomas Jefferson was originally intended to appear in the area at Washington's right, but after the work there was begun, the rock was found to be unsuitable, so the work on the Jefferson figure was dynamited, and a new figure was sculpted to Washington's left.[10]

In 1933, the National Park Service took Mount Rushmore under its jurisdiction. Engineer Julian Spotts helped with the project by improving its infrastructure. For example, he had the tram upgraded so that it could reach the top of Mount Rushmore for the ease of workers. By July 4, 1934, Washington's face had been completed and was dedicated. The face of Thomas Jefferson was dedicated in 1936, and the face of Abraham Lincoln was dedicated on September 17, 1937. In 1937, a bill was introduced in Congress to add the head of civil-rights leader Susan B. Anthony, but a rider was passed on an appropriations bill requiring that federal funds be used to finish only those heads that had already been started at that time.[13] In 1939, the face of Theodore Roosevelt was dedicated.

The Sculptor's Studio—a display of unique plaster models and tools related to the sculpting—was built in 1939 under the direction of Borglum. Borglum died from an embolism in March 1941. His son, Lincoln Borglum, continued the project. Originally, it was planned that the figures would be carved from head to waist,[14] but insufficient funding forced the carving to end.[10] Borglum had also planned a massive panel in the shape of the Louisiana Purchase commemorating in eight-foot-tall gilded letters the Declaration of Independence, U.S. Constitution, Louisiana Purchase, and seven other territorial acquisitions from Alaska to Texas to the Panama Canal Zone.[12]
A model at the site depicting Mount Rushmore's intended final design. Insufficient funding forced the carving to end in October 1941.

The entire project cost US$989,992.32.[15] Notably for a project of such size, no workers died during the carving.[16]

On October 15, 1966, Mount Rushmore was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. An essay from Nebraska student William Andrew Burkett, selected as the winner for the college-age group in 1934, was placed on the Entablature on a bronze plate in 1973.[13] In 1991, President George H. W. Bush officially dedicated Mount Rushmore.

In a canyon behind the carved faces is a chamber, cut only 70 feet (21 m) into the rock, containing a vault with sixteen porcelain enamel panels. The panels include the text of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, biographies of the four presidents and Borglum, and the history of the U.S. The chamber was created as the entranceway to a planned "Hall of Records"; the vault was installed in 1998.[17]

Ten years of redevelopment work culminated with the completion of extensive visitor facilities and sidewalks in 1998, such as a Visitor Center, the Lincoln Borglum Museum, and the Presidential Trail. Maintenance of the memorial annually requires mountain climbers to monitor and seal cracks. The memorial is not cleaned to remove lichens. It has been cleaned only once. On July 8, 2005, Kärcher GmbH, a German manufacturer of cleaning machines, conducted a free cleanup operation; the washing used pressurized water at over 200 °F (93 °C).[18]

Controversy

Mount Rushmore is controversial among Native Americans because the United States seized the area from the Lakota tribe after the Great Sioux War of 1876–77. The Treaty of Fort Laramie from 1868 had previously granted the Black Hills to the Lakota in perpetuity. Members of the American Indian Movement led an occupation of the monument in 1971, naming it "Mount Crazy Horse". Among the participants were young activists, grandparents, children and Lakota holy man John Fire Lame Deer, who planted a prayer staff atop the mountain. Lame Deer said the staff formed a symbolic shroud over the presidents' faces "which shall remain dirty until the treaties concerning the Black Hills are fulfilled."[19]

In 2004, the first Native American superintendent of the park was appointed. Gerard Baker has stated that he will open up more "avenues of interpretation", and that the four presidents are "only one avenue and only one focus."[20]

The Crazy Horse Memorial is being constructed elsewhere in the Black Hills to commemorate a famous Native American leader and as a response to Mount Rushmore. It is intended to be larger than Mount Rushmore and has the support of Lakota chiefs; the Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation has rejected offers of federal funds. However, this memorial is likewise the subject of controversy, even within the Native American community.[21]

The Monument also provokes controversy because some allege that underlying it is the theme of racial superiority legitimized by the idea of Manifest Destiny. The mountains were carved with Borglum's choice of four presidents active during the time of the acquisition of Native American land. Gutzon Borglum himself excites controversy because he was an active member of the white supremacist organisation, the Ku Klux Klan.[9][22]

In 2009, author Ivan Eland released Recarving Rushmore: Ranking the Presidents on Peace, Prosperity, and Liberty, a book that advocates a reappraisal of the presidency of three of the four presidents on the monument.[23]

Ecology
The Black Hills opposite Mount Rushmore.

The flora and fauna of Mount Rushmore are similar to those of the rest of the Black Hills region of South Dakota. Birds including the turkey vulture, bald eagle, hawk, and meadowlark fly around Mount Rushmore, occasionally making nesting spots in the ledges of the mountain. Smaller birds, including songbirds, nuthatches, and woodpeckers, inhabit the surrounding pine forests. Terrestrial mammals include the mouse, chipmunk, squirrel, skunk, porcupine, raccoon, beaver, badger, coyote, bighorn sheep, and bobcat. In addition, several species of frogs and snakes inhabit the region. The two streams in the memorial, the Grizzly Bear and Starling Basin brooks, support fish such as the longnose dace and the brook trout.[24] Mountain goats are not indigenous to the area but can also be found here. They are descended from goats which were a gift from Canada to Custer State Park in 1924 but later escaped.[25]

At lower elevations, coniferous trees, mainly the Ponderosa pine, surround most of the monument, providing shade from the sun. Other trees include the bur oak, the Black Hills spruce, and the cottonwood. Nine species of shrubs live near Mount Rushmore. There is also a wide variety of wildflowers, including especially the snapdragon, sunflower, and violet. Towards higher elevations, plant life becomes sparser.[25] However, only approximately five percent of the plant species found in the Black Hills are indigenous to the region.[26]

The area receives about 18 inches (460 mm) of precipitation on average per year, enough to support abundant animal and plant life. Trees and other plants help to control surface runoff. Dikes, seeps, and springs help to dam up water that is flowing downhill, providing watering spots for animals. In addition, stones like sandstone and limestone help to hold groundwater, creating aquifers.[27]

Forest fires occur in the Ponderosa forests surrounding Mount Rushmore around every 27 years. This was determined from fire scars in tree core samples. These help to clean forest debris located on the ground. Large conflagrations are rare, but have occurred in the past.[28]

Geology
Mount Rushmore, showing the full size of the mountain and the scree of rocks from the sculpting and construction.

Mount Rushmore is largely composed of granite. The memorial is carved on the northwest margin of the Harney Peak granite batholith in the Black Hills of South Dakota, so the geologic formations of the heart of the Black Hills region are also evident at Mount Rushmore. The batholith magma intruded into the pre-existing mica schist rocks during the Precambrian period about 1.6 billion years ago.[29] Very coarse grained pegmatite is associated with the granite of Harney Peak. The light-colored streaks in the presidents' foreheads are due to these dikes.

The Black Hills granites were exposed to erosion during the late Precambrian, but were buried by sandstones and other sediments during the Cambrian Period. The area remained buried throughout the Paleozoic Era, but was exposed again to erosion during the tectonic uplift about 70 million years ago.[29] The Black Hills area was uplifted as an elongated geologic dome.[30] The subsequent natural erosion of this mountain range allowed the carvings by stripping the granite of the overlying sediments and the softer adjacent schists. The contact between the granite and darker schist is viewable just below the sculpture of Washington.

Borglum selected Mount Rushmore as the site for several reasons. The rock of the mountain is composed of smooth, fine-grained granite. The durable granite erodes only 1 inch (25 mm) every 10,000 years, indicating that it was sturdy enough to support sculpting.[10] In addition, it was the tallest mountain in the region, looming to a height of 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level.[3] Because the mountain faces the southeast, the workers also had the advantage of sunlight for most of the day.

Tourism

Tourism is South Dakota's second-largest industry, and Mount Rushmore is its top tourist attraction. In 2004, over two million visitors traveled to the memorial.[4] The site is also home to the final concerts of Rushmore Music Camp and attracts many visitors over the week of the Sturgis Motorcycle Rally.

Popular culture

Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) and Eve Kendall (Eva Marie Saint) dangle precipitously from the sculpture of George Washington in North by Northwest.

Due to its fame as a monument, Mount Rushmore is frequently discussed or depicted in media, film and popular culture. It has been depicted in various media as a secret base of operations for the United States military and for other forces, appearing as such in the early 1980s television series, Buck Rogers in the 25th Century, in the film, Team America: World Police, in the Ben 10 franchise, the 1981 animated film Ultraman: The Adventure Begins, and even an episode of Courage the Cowardly Dog. In the 2007 film National Treasure: Book of Secrets, it marked the location of the mythical golden city of Cíbola.

The large carved faces of the monument have made it a target for parodies and other symbolic alterations of its appearance in media, frequently including replacement of one or more of the four presidents' faces with other people or characters, or the addition of another face. Such a device was used in the movies Superman II, Mars Attacks!, the Japanese anime series "Naruto" and the 2008 video game Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots.

The memorial was iconically used as the location of the climactic chase scene in Alfred Hitchcock's 1959 movie North by Northwest. Scriptwriter Ernest Lehman recalled that in the course of screenwriting, Hitchcock "murmured wistfully, 'I always wanted to do a chase across the faces of Mount Rushmore.'"[31] The scene was not actually filmed at the monument, since permission to shoot an attempted killing on the face of a national monument was refused by the National Park Service. The film incorrectly depicts a forested plateau and the house of the villain atop the monument. The North by Northwest appearance has itself been parodied in several venues.
Notes and references

   1. ^ Mount Rushmore National Memorial. December 6, 2005.60 SD Web Traveler, Inc. Retrieved April 7, 2006.
   2. ^ McGeveran, William A. Jr. et al. (2004). The Word Almanac and Book of Facts 2004. New York: World Almanac Education Group, Inc. ISBN 0-88687-910-8.
   3. ^ a b Mount Rushmore, South Dakota (November 1, 2004). Peakbagger.com. Retrieved March 13, 2006.
   4. ^ a b c "Mount Rushmore National Memorial Frequently Asked Questions". National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/moru/faqs.htm. Retrieved December 2, 2009.
   5. ^ "Honeycombing process explained from". nps.gov. 2004-06-14. http://www.nps.gov/archive/moru/park_history/carving_hist/workers.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-20.
   6. ^ "Geology Fieldnotes". nps.gov. 2005-01-04. http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/parks/moru/. Retrieved 2010-10-22.
   7. ^ Belanger, Ian A. et al. "Mt. Rushmore- presidents on the rocks" at the Wayback Machine (archived May 14, 2006).
   8. ^ Keystone Area Historical Society Keystone Characters. Retrieved October 3, 2006.
   9. ^ a b ""People & Events: The Carving of Stone Mountain"". American Experience. PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/rushmore/peopleevents/e_stonemtn.html. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
10. ^ a b c d e f Carving History (October 2, 2004). National Park Service.
11. ^ Fite, Gilbert C. Mount Rushmore (May 2003). ISBN 0-9646798-5-X, the standard scholarly study.
12. ^ a b Albert Boime, "Patriarchy Fixed in Stone: Gutzon Borglum's 'Mount Rushmore'," American Art, Vol. 5, No. 1/2. (Winter - Spring, 1991), pp. 142–67.
13. ^ a b American Experience "Timeline: Mount Rushmore" (2002). Retrieved March 20, 2006.
14. ^ Mount Rushmore National Memorial.
15. ^ Mount Rushmore National Memorial. Tourism in South Dakota. Laura R. Ahmann. Retrieved March 19, 2006.
16. ^ Mount Rushmore National Memorial. Outdoorplaces.com. Retrieved June 7, 2006.
17. ^ "Hall of Records". Mount Rushmore National Memorial web site. National Park Service. 2004-06-14. http://www.nps.gov/archive/moru/park_history/carving_hist/hall_of_records.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-04.
18. ^ ""For Mount Rushmore, An Overdue Face Wash"". http://www.washingtonpost.com. 11 July 2005. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/10/AR2005071000754.html. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
19. ^ Matthew Glass, "Producing Patriotic Inspiration at Mount Rushmore," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Vol. 62, No. 2. (Summer, 1994), pp. 265–283.
20. ^ David Melmer (13 December 2004). ""Historic changes for Mount Rushmore"". http://www.indiancountrytoday.com. http://www.indiancountrytoday.com/archive/28172949.html. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
21. ^ Lame Deer, John (Fire) and Richard Erdoes. Lame Deer Seeker of Visions. Simon and Schuster, New York, New York, 1972. Paperback ISBN 0-671-55392-5
22. ^ ""Gutzon Borglum, The Story of Mount Rushmore"". Ralphmag.org. http://www.ralphmag.org/borglumP.html. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
23. ^ Paul, Ron (April 4, 2009). "Part 1: 04/04/2009 Ron Paul interviews Ivan Eland on Recarving Rushmore CSPAN". CSPAN. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IFFmEBmRSb8.
24. ^ "Nature & Science- Animals". NPS. 26 November 2006. http://www.nps.gov/moru/naturescience/animals.htm. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
25. ^ a b Mount Rushmore- Flora and Fauna. American Park Network. URL accessed on March 16, 2006. Web archive link Archived March 17, 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
26. ^ "Nature & Science - Plants". NPS. 6 December 2006. http://www.nps.gov/moru/naturescience/plants.htm. Retrieved 17 March 2010.
27. ^ Nature & Science- Groundwater. National Park Service. Retrieved April 1, 2006.
28. ^ Nature & Science- Forests. National Park Service. Retrieved April 1, 2006.
29. ^ a b Geologic Activity. National Park Service.
30. ^ Irvin, James R. Great Plains Gallery (2001). Retrieved March 16, 2006.
31. ^ Barbara Straumann, "Rewriting American Foundational Myths in Alfred Hitchcock's North by Northwest", in Martin Heusser and Gudrun Grabher, American Foundational Myths (2002), p. 201.

Further reading

    * Larner, Jesse. Mount Rushmore: An Icon Reconsidered New York: Nation Books, 2002.
    * Taliaferro, John. Great White Fathers: The Story of the Obsessive Quest to Create Mount Rushmore. New York: PublicAffairs, c2002. Puts the creation of the monument into a historical and cultural context.
    * The National Parks: Index 2001–2003. Washington: United States Department of the Interior

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